O Level Revision : History - Late Iron Age: Great Zimbabwe, Mutapa and Rozvi

Important  changes  took  place  in  Southern  African societies during the Iron Age. These changes included:

• Food production.
• Tool making.
• Specialisation, leading to trade.
• Surplus production for trade.
• Settled existence.

Familiarise yourself with terms such as political, military, social, economic and religious organisation in order to be able to answer questions fairly.

Great Zimbabwe

Great Zimbabwe derives its name from stone buildings. The stone walls were built from granite rocks, in a unique manner. Historians agree that the walls of Great Zimbabwe were built by the Shona people of Zimbabwe.

The  origins and  rise  of Great Zimbabwe

• Great Zimbabwe is popular for its pottery. It is believed to have been founded by ancestors of the Torwa dynasty around 1200 AD.
• It started off as an early Iron Age site.
• First settlement  was  a  hill  (hill  settlement). As population grew a village sprouted in the valley (valley settlement).
• A huge  stone  wall  (Great  Enclosure)  was  built around the ruler’s residence.

The  stone walls of Great Zimbabwe

• Were skilfully built in granite rocks.
• Were carefully fitted and set in straight lines.
• No mortar was used to hold stones together.
• The lower parts were decorated.
• The walls symbolised:

-     power of the state;

-     achievements of the ruling class;

-     luxurious wealth of the king, family and other relatives.

Reasons for settling (the  rise of Great Zimbabwe)

• Arable land.
• Adequate pasture.
• Close to water source.
• Suitable climate.
• Hill provided defence.
• Religious purposes – it became a religious centre.
• Military strength.
• Mineral resources such as gold, tin, iron and copper in the outlying areas.

• Trade control.

Economic organisation of Great Zimbabwe

Economic activities included:

• Agriculture: growing crops (arable farming) and livestock keeping (pastoralism).
• Trade: internal and external in gold, ivory and salt.
• The state became a trade centre.
• Blacksmithing (making iron tools and items.)
• Weaving.
• Basketry.
• Pottery.
• Tribute payment – sub-chiefs and weaker chiefs paid tribute.
• Hunting (elephants for ivory).
• Gathering.
• Fishing.
• Mining e.g. gold, iron, copper.

Political organisation of Great Zimbabwe

• Great Zimbabwe walls are said to have been built to display the power of the state.

• Historians have suggested that the conical tower in the Great Enclosure and the Zimbabwe bird may have been symbols of royal ancestors.
• Rulers had authority over their subjects.
• Rulers at Great Zimbabwe had considerable wealth and power.

• The rulers monitored and supervised economic and trading activities as well as the payment of tribute by their subjects.
• The army protected the state and trade routes.
• An advisory council helped the ruler.
• The   senior   wife,   religious   leaders   and   army commander were part of the advisory council.

Social organisation of Great Zimbabwe

• The state was a religious centre.
• It was a patrilineal society.
• It was polygamous.
• Bride price (lobola) was paid in marriage.
• There was division of labour based on gender.
• They lived in thatched pole and dagga huts.
• They wore animal skins.
• The people had totems.
• Exploitation of the poor by the rich.

Possible reasons for the  decline of Great Zimbabwe

Economic reasons for the decline of Great Zimbabwe

• Population growth leading to over-crowding due to land shortage.

• Overgrazing ( as a result of shortage of pastures).
• Persistent droughts leading to food shortages.
• Exhaustion  of  natural  resources  such  as  gold deposits, ivory, fertile soils, wildlife and salt.

• Decline in trade: trade routes shifted to the Zambezi valley.

• Discovery of resources in the north.
• Outbreak of diseases such as cholera and smallpox.

Political reasons for the decline Great Zimbabwe

• The emergence of ambitious leaders.
• Corrupt leaders.
• Incompetent leaders.
• Succession disputes.
• Civil wars.
• The rise of the Mutapa and Torwa states

The  Mutapa State

It is also known as Munhumutapa, Monomotapa or Mwenemutapa. Various reasons have been suggested for its rise, and it is believed that the Mutapa State was an offshoot from Great Zimbabwe. Great Zimbabwe and the Mutapa State had similar pottery.

Origins  of the  Mutapa State

• It rose around the 15th century. Its rise coincided with the decline of Great Zimbabwe.
• According to oral tradition, the state was founded by Nyatsimba Mutota who left Great Zimbabwe because of:

-     shortage of salt;          -    population growth;

-     drought;                      -    succession disputes;

-     shifting of trade routes.

• Nyatsimba Mutota  reached  the  Dande  region where he conquered the Tonga and Tavara people and established his capital at Chitakochanganya.
• The Mutapa state, stretching from the Limpopo to the Zambezi, was one of the most powerful and largest states in pre-colonial Africa. At its peak, it had provinces such as Fura, Dande, Guruuswa, Mapungubwe, Khami,     Danangombe,     Great Zimbabwe, Naletale and Ingombe Ilende.

Economic organisation of The  Mutapa State

• That the Mutapa State survived into the 19th century is evidence of a strong economy based on:

-     crop growing;

-     livestock keeping  (pastoralism);

-     trade with the Swahili and the Portuguese;

-     tribute payment;

-     hunting;

-     Mining;

-     blacksmithing (iron smelting);

-     weaving;

-     fishing;

-     pottery;

-     raiding ;

• The  basis  of  Mutapa  economy  was  agriculture (livestock keeping and crop growing) and trade.
• Cattle were a sign of wealth, used to pay tribute and lobola (bride price), and used to appease ancestral spirits, as well as a source of food in form of meat and milk.

Political and  military organisation of The  Mutapa State

• The  Mutapas  were  efficient  rulers  who  were powerful. To maintain power, the rulers relied on:

-     religion;

-     the army (military machine);

-     tribute payment;

-     the royal fire.

• The army protected and defended the state from enemies.

• The army also engaged in raiding for grain and animals (food).

• It enforced laws and collected tribute on behalf of the king.

• The principal  officials  in  the  Mutapa  political organisation included governors of provinces, treasurer, doorkeeper, priests, divines and chief confidante.
• Some important kings of the Mutapa State:

-     Nyatsimba   Mutota;   Nyanhehwe   Matope; Nyamhita      Nehanda;    Nyahuma;    Chikuyo Chisamarengu; Gatsi Rusere; Mavura Mhande; Negomo Mapunzagutu; Nyambo Kapararidze; Mukombwe; Nyakunembire; Chioko.

Social organisation of The  Mutapa State

• It was a patrilineal society.
• It was polygamous.
• Bride price (lobola) was paid in marriage.
• There was division of labour based on gender.
• They lived in thatched pole and dagga huts.
• They wore animal skins.
• The people had totems.
• There was exploitation of the poor by the rich.

Religion of The  Mutapa State

• People of the Mutapa State recognised the existence of a supreme God they called ‘Mwari’. They approached Him through their ancestral spirits (vadzimu).
• The Mutapa King himself was feared and respected for he was considered to be God chosen. This way, possibilities  of  rebellions  or  uprisings  could  be minimised and peace prevailed in the state.
• The spirit  mediums  were  consulted  during  the installation of kings, and during times of trouble such as drought, war, starvation and disease. These spirits were known to provide solutions to these problems.
• The Mutapa ruled with the blessing of the religious powers of the land. So, religion and politics were closely linked and this ensured the continued survival of the state into the 19th century.
• They held rain-making ceremonies.
• They worshipped at national shrines.

The  fall of the  Mutapa State

• Portuguese activities largely contributed to the fall of the Mutapa State as the Portuguese:

-     Divided people by introducing a new religion called Christianity which contradicted with African Traditional Religion.

-     Forcibly took away land.

-     Refused to pay tribute to the king.

-     Interfered in succession disputes when they chose puppet chiefs like Mavura Mhande in 1629.

-     Helped rebellious vassals and gave them guns to fight the Mutapa Kings.

• Other possible reasons for the fall of the state:

-     Succession disputes in the ruling family.

-     Exhaustion of land.

-     Drought.

-     The Mutapa state was too large – difficult to control.

-     Emergence of weak leaders.

-     Invasion by the Maravi people.

-     Invasion by people fleeing from Shaka.

-     The rise of Changamire of the Rozvi.

Portuguese activities in the  Mutapa State

Possible reasons for Portuguese presence in the state:

• To spread Christianity.
• To open up the interior for European settlement.
• To control gold mining.
• To get ivory.
• To get fertile land.
• To establish trade feiras (trading posts).
• To control trade routes into the interior.
• To rule local people (Mutapa people).
• To look for slaves.
• To avenge the death of Gonzalo da Silveira.
• To find the legendary Prester John.
• They were invited by Gatsi Rusere.
• Portuguese visitors to the Mutapa State included: Antonio Fernandez; Father Goncalo da Silveira; Francisco Barreto; Vasco Homen; Donna Katarina; Diego Simoes Madeira; Diego Simores; Diego da Menes

Economic activities

• Barter trade - the main trade item was gold from the Mutapa State in exchange for beads, cloth, alcohol, tobacco, spirits, jewellery, ceramics, maize seed and guns.
• The Portuguese established trade centres at Sena; Tete; Quelimane; Massapa; Masekesa; Dambarare, Sofala and Beira.
• Pushed Swahili traders out of the interior.
• Plantation agriculture – had a negative impact on the lives of the Shona people of the Mutapa State as it disrupted their agricultural activities..
• Forced labour on farms and mines. The people lost their fertile land to the Portuguese.

• Practised slavery and slave trade.
• The tax system (curva): tax on goods traded in the Mutapa.
• Crop growing.
• Livestock keeping.
• Mining.
• Hunting.

Political activities

• Interference in succession disputes.
• Promoted, and interfered in, civil wars.
• Created prazos as mini-kingdoms.
• Built personal armies (chikundas).
• Went into alliances with mwenemutapas.
• The Portuguese later on stopped paying tribute to the Mutapa and contributed to the decline of the state.
• Mutapa subjects no longer showed loyalty to their King but to the Portuguese, so the Portuguese began to influence Mutapa political decisions.

Social activities

• Brought new architecture.
• Brought in a new education system.
• Intermarried.
• Raped women.
• Forced labour.
• Established private prisons.
• Slave trade.

Religious activities

• Preached Christianity.
• Baptised people.
• Built churches.
• Discouraged African Traditional Religion.

An examination question on the Portuguese activities in the Zambezi Valley can be answered using content on Portuguese activities in the Mutapa State.

The  Rozvi State

Origins  of the  Rozvi State

• The state rose during the 16th century. The Rozvi people shared the Moyo totem which was a great spiritual bond  between  all  the  Rozvi  regardless of their social status. The first Rozvi King was Changamire Dombo.
• The state grew out of several Shona dynasties.
• The state capitals included Bocha, Buhera, Torwa, Manyika and Uteve. Changamire Dombo drove the Portuguese out of Manyika to Masekesa in 1693.
• Rozvi  provinces  were  Danangombe,  Manyanga, Khami and Naletale.

• The army of the Rozvi State was very strong and it raided other states to create a large Rozvi empire.

Economic organisation of The  Rozvi State

• Agriculture:

-     Pastoralism:  keeping  of  domestic  animals.

Cattle were very important for payment of lobola  (bride  price),  ploughing,  ceremonies as well as providing  food in the form of milk and meat. Cattle were also a sign of wealth (status symbol) for  men.

-     Crop growing: they grew crops such as millet, rapoko and sorghum.

• Hunting e.g. elephants for ivory.
• Gathering.
• Mining minerals like gold, copper and iron.
• Blacksmithing.
• Internal and external trade: with the Portuguese in items like ivory, gold, cattle and grain.

• Weaving cloth from cotton.
• Fishing acted as a source of food.
• Raiding,  especially  those  who  refused  to  pay tribute. The army raided for grain, cattle, goats, etc.

Political organisation of The  Rozvi State

• The Mambo/Changamire (King) headed the state.
• He  was  assisted  by  vassal  chiefs  who  were  in charge of the provinces.

• The  king  had  an  advisory  council  called  Dare raMambo.

• The king’s wives and sons-in-law were important court officials.
• When the king died, he was succeeded by his eldest son. This form  of  succession  caused  leadership disputes.
• The Mambo was the judicial, political, military and religious leader.

• The king distributed land and cattle (kuronzera/ ukusisela).

• Rozvi armies were well-organised and well-trained.

These armies ensured the long survival of the state. The army earned the nickname ‘the destroyers’.

• Tribute payment as a sign of loyalty in items like gold, ivory, animal skins,  cattle,  grain and iron tools.

Religion and  politics of The  Rozvi State

• The Rozvi believed in the power and guidance of ancestral spirits. These spirits were praised, consulted and appeased through spirit mediums who communicated directly with the ancestors on behalf of the people.
• They also worshipped Mwari (God). The Mambo was believed to have descended from Mwari.

• Religion  strengthened   politics   because   Rozvi subjects could not question the Mambo’s rule since he was connected to the high God.

• As such, religion was used to convince the ordinary people that the political organisation of the state was legitimate. This ensured peace and unity in the state.
• The Changamire was the religious, judicial as well as the political authority in the state.

• There was a royal fire which burnt all the time at the king’s palace. It was a symbol of the ruler’s authority.
• Rozvi Kings: Changamire Dombo; Chirisamhuru; Tohwechipi; Rupandamanhanga; Nechagadzike; Nechasike; Changa weMbire; Negomo.

Social organisation of The  Rozvi State

• The Rozvi practiced polygamy.
• Men paid lobola (bride price) for their wives largely using cattle and other items.

• The   Rozvi   had   individual   homesteads   which formed lineages.

• The state was patrilineal.
• They believed in witchcraft and life after death.
• Held rain making ceremonies.
• There was division of labour based on sex.
• Local people were made to follow Rozvi customs and beliefs. Examples were the Makoni, Marange and Mutema dynasties.
• The   kuronzera/ukusisela   system   ensured   that people got milk and draught power.

The  decline of the  Rozvi State

• Internal reasons included:

-     Drought

-     Loss of population as vassal states broke away

-     Civil wars

-     Exhaustion of gold fields

-     Succession disputes

• External reasons:

-     Attack by products of the Mfecane, for example the    Ngoni,    Zwangendaba,    Soshangana, Nyamazana, the Ndebele.

-     Areas    like    Zvimba,    Seke,    Chinamora, Mangwende and Chihota did not come under Rozvi rule.

-     Portuguese interference.