A-Level Notes History - Early Communities Of Zimbabwe - The Rozvi State

The Rozvi State

The reconstruction of the Rozvi state is not only controversial  but like opening a Pandora's box of paradoxes.  Confusion by scholars simply do not add up. What comes out of the confusion  is simply clear to conclude that the Rozvi descended from the Torwa state or was created at almost the same time Mutapa was created by Mutota Chibatamatosi  in the early 15th century.  It was created by Changwa the other prince from Chibatamatosi. The bustling state centred at Khami  (kame in Tonga means milker of lots of cattle).  Incidentally what is collaborated by the Portuguese documents is that,  during the pick of Mutapa Empire, the Torwa state paid tribute and benefited from the Zambezi trade with the Portuguese.  Mutapa and the Torwa are both Shona kingdoms established after the demise of the Great Zimbabwe sate.  Khami was the capital city of the Torwa elite of the Butua state which ruled from about AD 1450  until a civil war broke out and invited the intervention  of a Portuguese warlord,  Seisnando Dias Bayao who attacked from the Zambezi valley and led to the abandonment and destruction around 1644, when the elite moved to the Midlands just outside Gweru.  It was from this new found elitist retreat that saw the rise of the Changamire Mambo-Dombo.  Dombo was given the custody of Mutapa cattle (kuronzera).  However dos Antos,  a Portuguese traveller purported that Dombo was a cattle herder who fled with  Mutapa's wealth and founded his state.  (Where? -- he should be asked). This is  lack of understanding of the philosophy of kuronzera- a king when given or leasing cattle is not a herder.  Dos Antos has a flattering weak argument.

Another Portuguese source,  da Dominica claimed Dombo was a master magician and deadly wizard who used magic to conquer other states.  He even calls the Rozvi state- the magic state because they claim  Dombo could change cattle colours and be at more than one place at a time.  His soldiers were often invisible on the battle.  He could also mobilise wild animals and bees to attack other armies.  He was deadly because Dombo at all times could tell one what one had in  mind and foretell events and outcomes.  Da Dominica asserts that the Shona name kurozva (rozvi) means trick and spoil  using magic,  hence derived from their leader Dombo this is again a pure biased Euro-centric view premised on the defeat by Dombo, who even helped the Mutapa drive off the Portuguese from the Zambezi valley. They were so thoroughly vanquished that they thought he jammed their guns and were stung by bees when they were stung  by bows and arrow snipers.  European superiority disposition made them claim Africans used magic whenever they were defeated. Those who supported this assertion  are Euro-centric apologists who under-estimate African strength and civilisation.

Mudenge,  advocates that the Rozvi state came into being in about 1700 wen Dombo, with a strong army of around 4000 subdued the Butua state, once a vassal  of Mutapa and defeat• ed the Torwa people. The issue historians have struggled to conclude is that the Rozvi only came into being around 1700,  not into existence under Changamire Dombo a descendant of the Torwa of Great Zimbabwe and became stronger during the declining Mutapa state.

The see-saw political swing of the Zambezia,  often oscillated from one vassal enclave to the others,  like the other vassal enclave of the Torwa produced Dombo of the Rozvi. The Torwa (strangers) became pillagers or the Rozvis. They managed to tame the Mutapa state and dominate proceedings on the Zambezi valley.  Mutapa continued to thrive,  even asking the assistance of Rozvi,  better soldiers to help them chase away the Portuguese.

They controlled the rest of the Torwa,  Manyika and Kalanga. They established their capital first at Danamombe, then moved it to Manyika or Tabazikama.  The capitals like  Khami  royal court were beautiful  cities.  Real  beautiful  stone walled fortified  cities. The art and masonry expertise,  displayed there is a phenomenal. It is  like the angels flew past and stopped to decorate, the checked,  card herringbone,  chevron and bands designs.

Phimister and Proctor add up to the complex contentions by euro-centric historians about the origins of the Rozvi state. What is pertinent and crucial  is that the Rozvi were Shona of the Moyo Ndizvo totem who discerned from Mutapa to dominate Mutapa. This was only a revived new ruling lineage. The fact that the Khami  capital of Torwa was abandoned • speaks clearly that the Rozvi originated from this abandoned city whose roots were firmly Great Zimbabwe and Mutapa.  By virtue of having been related to Mutapa they simply exploited the decline of the Mutapa to sustain the other Shona Empire. Archaeologists collaborate information  of the inter-relatedness of Dombo of Rozvi and the Torwa of Butua.  Similarity of artefacts, tools,  buildings, figurines, jewellery,  pottery and artistic designs in forts,  ports,  huts and all other crafts attest to the rise and fall of the same state under a new monarchical  lineage.  No difference was in traditions,  customs and culture between the Rozvi and the Torwa.

Other historians have declaimed the origins of the Rozvi  using oral traditions, and ethnography attest to Portuguese written  documents, that the state was founded by Dombo who had magical  powers- special  powers. They claim he could make soldiers brave Dombo was nicknamed from the rock solid,  mountains of Hungwe and Zhombe.  His actual  name was Chikura.

Political Organisation of the Rozvi State

This was a successor in prominence to Mutapa Empire which was built by military conquest and so had a militaristic structure. They managed to control the plateau up to Zimbo and Manyika.  Changamire Dombo became the supreme king of the Rozvi state, who received tribute from vassal  states and severely punished rebels. All other structural  institutions, the Rozvi were just like the Great Zimbabwe and Mutapa.

Rulers carried the title, the 'Mambo'. The king was everything - judicial,  religious,  political and economic over-load and his word was final. Though the king was assisted by a council called 'Dare'. The 'Dare' was never to contradict the king.  Doing so was a punishable offense by either expulsion from the state or even death.  He was also the religious leader. He presided over traditional ceremonies (rain making and first Fruits). The king had divine presence or supernatural  powers. The people believed that the king spoke on behalf of Mwari /God to the people.  Kingship was hereditary. The power of the king rested mainly on the army which was mandated to maintain order in and defend the state. The army also had the duty to collect state revenue (tribute).

The king had advisors to assist him and they were known as the Dare- mainly priests and army commanders. The state was divided into provinces, districts and villages.  Provinces were under provincial  chiefs and were installed  by the Mambo. They run the provinces. They were installed  by the king and so showed loyalty by paying tribute. A chief could be killed if he refused to pay tribute because this was considered a sign of revolt. Kingship was also hereditary. The first born son succeeded the king.  Kingship would rotate among the sons before being passed on to the grandsons. This to some extent prevented succession disputes.  Chiefs were in charge of chiefdoms and were again appointed by the Mambo (district chiefs). Villages were under village chiefs or headmen (sadunhu). Allegiance to the Mambo was shown through payment of tribute. The Mambo was installed by spirit mediums.

Another important political figure in the Rozvi state was the 'Tumbare', the commander of Rozvi armies.  He was the Rozvi  General. He was commander of the army but in close liaison with the king.  On death or illness of Mambo,  he acted as regent till appointment of new Mambo.  Provinces were under vassal  chiefs installed  by Mambo or his representatives.

He also supervised payment of tribute.

Of importance were the King's many wives and Vanyai. They advised the ruler and those around the court. Vanyai were for information  gathering.

Social Organisation

Rozvi  rulers encouraged intermarriages since they fostered unity. The king married  into a number of Mayo families. The absorbed communities felt part and parcel of state because of intermarriages.  Intermarriages removed the stigma of defeat from the conquered communities.

The most important unit of the Rozvi was the homestead. The head of the lineage was responsible for ensuring that all the correct ceremonies and offerings were made to the lineage ancestors. This made people fear and respect the head of the lineage.  In the homestead, they practiced division of labour which was based mainly on sex. The women produced grain and vegetables, which were important and complimented  by males who produced milk and meat. Women also maintained the household.  Rozvi society was patrilineal. Cattle were a status symbol.  Cattle served several functions among which were to pay lobola, tribute and provide milk,  meat and manure.  Cattle could be loaned  under the system of 'kuronzera'. The Rozvi strongly believed in the existence of witchcraft.  Polygamy was practised and was mainly a preserve of the rich and the royal family.

Religion

The Rozvi  believed in  Mwari who was worshipped through ancestors and traditional oracles. They believed that Mwari could bring fortune or disaster and that disobedience of divine rulers was often the cause of the misfortunes that bedevilled the society. Appeasement would be made where the state atoned for its sins with the king presiding over the ritual.

Usually,  beer was brewed by young girls under the leadership of old women who were not sexually active in order to avoid 'polluting' the rituals. The religious beliefs of the Rozvi manifested themselves in their material  culture.  Beautiful stone enclosures were built especially at Khami, which was one of the Rozvi  centres.

The stone structures resemble those at Great Zimbabwe with enclosures in which the king lived.  Because the Mambo was seen as a divine personality,  his court was impressively decorated. The Mambo was chosen by spirit mediums and led  ritual  ceremonies. The Rozvi believed in ancestral spirits (vadzimu),  and spirit mediums (masvikiro) and national spirit mediums (mhondoro). A sacred fire was kept burning every time at the court as a symbol  of the king's authority.

Economic  organization

Livestock Production:  Cattle were the most important of all animals kept. It was the king who owned more cattle.  He could loan cattle under a system called 'kuronzera'.  Other animals kept included goats and sheep. The Rozvi took advantage of the dry grasslands, low trees and excellent pastureland of Guruuswa, to raise large herds of cattle,  goats and sheep.

Crop Cultivation: They grew a variety of crops like sorghum and millet which were important for making sadza, which was the staple food.  Surplus grain stored by the king was used to feed the army and was also used to exchange for other items needed in the state (trade).  Grain was also important for brewing beer.  Other crops grown included  sweet potatoes,  melons,  cucumbers, ground nuts and cowpeas.  Most of these were introduced by the Portuguese. The people practised shifting  cultivation. There was division of labour based on skills as well as sex. Women did the weeding and the cultivation while men cleared the land .. The king's fields were worked by the subject people under a system known as 'zunde ramambo'. The subject people would do the required work from planting through to harvesting. The system should also have helped to bring unity into the state as it created more opportunities for subject people to interact more frequently.  It also gave way to the people to express their loyalty to the 'Mambo'.

Mining:  Mining was a part time activity.  It was controlled by the king.  It took two forms, that is,  alluvial and reef mining. Alluvial  mining was gold panning in which miners identified gold bearing dust usually along the river banks.  Reef mining applied to gold,  copper and iron. Miners would detect a belt or reef that bore the mineral and then hauled the rock from underground and brought it to the surface where they separated the metal from the ore. Gold and copper were used to make jewellery for domestic and external trade.

Tribute: Tribute payment had a dual function;  politically and economically.  Politically,  it implied  continued loyalty by the vassal  chiefs to the Rozvi  Mambo and refusal was taken to mean rebellion against the Mambo.  Chief tribute collector was the 'Tum bare'.  It could be paid in the form of gold,  cattle,  cloth,  skins, jewellery,  labour,  beads, tobacco and grain.

Economically, tribute provided vast quantities of wealth to the Rozvi  Mambo, though it could in turn be distributed to subject people as rewards or relief in times of drought.

Hunting and Gathering: The Rozvi were also great hunters.  Hunting weapons usually included spears,  bows and arrows, wooden stuff and some small axes.  Hunting was a male job.  Elephant hunting was also common.  In  1952,  Barross quoted by Randals (1981) states that Africans killed up to 5 000 elephants per year. This clearly shows that ivory was dearly needed for external trade.  Hunting was usually a masculine activity because it was dangerous (done by men).  From hunting, they got trade items like leopard skins,  ostrich feathers and ivory. Some items were given to the king as tribute. Women gathered fruits and vegetables.

Trade:  Externally, the Rozvi traded with the Portuguese and Arabs. They got cloth,  sea shells,  umbrellas,  handkerchiefs, chinaware,  brass bells,  scissors, candles,  beads,  liquor, shells and ceramics.  However, these were brought in small quantities,  showing that external trade was not the chief pillar of the Rozvi economy.  Rozvi  Mambos had to some extent had a monopoly on trade.  Ordinary people could also freely trade in gold,  ivory and other valuable items.  In return for the foreign goods, The Rozvi traders exchanged items like gold, ivory,  ostrich feathers and animal skins.  External trade also brought guns.  Because trade was greatly valued, the Rozvi  kings sent armies to protect the trade stations especially around Zumbo in the Zambezi valley.

The Portuguese were not allowed to advance too far into the interior of the country. The reason for this move is quite simple - the Rozvi,  had emerged out of the Mutapa state, therefore, were well aware of the destructive activities of the Portuguese. Trade was therefore intermediated  by special agents called 'vashambadzi', who moved across the country to get items for trade from both parties -- the Rozvi and the Portuguese. The policy allowed the Rozvi to maintain their political  independence.  Internally, the Rozvi  exchanged goods amongst themselves.

Military Organisation

Portuguese sources show that the Rozvi army fought fiercely and furiously. A variety of weapons were used:  bows and arrows, daggers, assegais,  shields,  battle axes,  cudgels and guns.  However,  guns were not of great importance to the Rozvi army. This could be because the guns were limited and some were inferior,  rusty and the Rozvi  lacked skilled manpower to use them.  Fighting formation was usually the cow horn. The Rozvi army favoured close combat, face to face in open field. The army was however, flexible in its tactics. At times,  Dombo favoured unconventional warfare. Summoning an army could be done by sounding a gun or beating  a drum.

 Oral tradition  has it that the Rozvi  used super natural  powers during wars against their enemies. They could summon bees to fight for them or send their enemies to sleep by magic.  Portuguese documents are also agreeable to this as they say that the Mambo, Dombo had magic oil which he could use to kill anyone by simply touching the person with it.

The Height of the Rozvi Power

By 1693, the Rozvi were the most dominant force south of the Zambezi. The Mutapa at the time was being eaten by civil wars. The Rozvi exacted tribute from outlying  rulers and controlled trade routes from the interior to the Zambezi Valley and the east Coast.

Even the Portuguese and the Arabs at the time acknowledged the Changamire and paid tribute as a sign of respect. According to Mavuru and Ratsauka,  one Portuguese was quoted saying,   "... Our cafres became so frightened of him that they trembled only at the mention of his name ... " This really shows that the Changamire was greatly feared.

Foreign traders passing through the kingdom were forced to pay taxes to the Rozvi  Mambo. The Changamire also dominated the Mutapa State during this time and indirectly controlled the Manyika and Maungwe provinces.  In  1693, the Changamire helped Mutapa Nyakunembiri to massacre the Portuguese who were operating feiras on the plateau.  In November 1693, the Rozvi army killed all the Portuguese who were trading at a feira in Dambarare. The army advanced to the centre of the state and destroyed the other feira at Mutapa.  However, after this show, the Rozvi  began to decline.  Changamire Dombo died in 1695, two years after the defeat of the Portuguese.

The rise and expansion of the Rozvi  in the south was a serious threat to the Mutapa state. Around 1684,  Changamire Dombo routed Mutapa Mukombwe's armies which had tried to restore their influence in the south.  Beach (1994) argues that succession wars in the Mutapa also gave the Rozvi a chance to tilt the balance of power in  present day Zimbabwe and expand their influence.  Due to Rozvi threats, the Mutapa was forced to shift the capital out of Zimbabwe soil further north into the Zambezi  lowlands on the way to Tete for Portuguese protection.  Indeed the last Mutapa headquarters was in Tete,  north of the Zambezi and Mutapas thus lost control  of vast lands that lay between them and the Rozvi  in the south.

Decline of the Rozvi State

Both internal and external factors played an influential  role in  causing the demise of the Rozvi state.  Mzilikazi's Ndebele were not the first Mfecane migrants to attack the Rozvi polity,  nor were they solely responsible for the decline of the Great Rozvi  Empire of the Changamires. As Needham et al  (1974:70) state, "By the time of the Ndebele arrival, whatever still  remained of the powerful  Changamire Empire was very weak as a result of both internal and external factors." Internally, civil wars had seriously ravaged the state so much so that by the end of the 18th century the Great Rozvi  Empire had been reduced to a kind of confederacy of shona chiefdoms. This confederacy was further struck by succession disputes. According to Barnes et al  (1991) the Rozvi  political  leadership was divided with some houses such as Swabasvi,  Sukuliba and Lozavi voluntarily submitting themselves to the Ndebele,  but other Shona people agreed to herd Ndebele cattle.  Many Shona speaking people gradually became Ndebele speakers and completely identified themselves with the Ndebele.  Barnes et al (1991) talks of serious droughts and major civil wars as internal factors that badly affected the continued existence of the Rozvi  in the late  18th and early 19th centuries. The situation was further worsened by an economic melt-down caused by the exhaustion of goldfields and the loss of population which the Changamires could not control.